Southern Dispersal Route How Humans First Left Africa

The Southern Dispersal Route refers to a theory that an early group of modern human beings left Africa between 130,000–70,000 years ago. They moved eastward, following the coastlines of Africa, Arabia, and India, arriving in Australia and Melanesia at least as early as 45,000 years ago. It is one of what appears now to have been multiple migration paths that our ancestors took as they left out of Africa. Coastal Routes Modern Homo sapiens, known as Early Modern Humans, evolved in East Africa between 200,000–100,000 years ago, and spread throughout the continent. The main southern dispersal hypothesis starts 130,000–70,000 years ago in South Africa, when and where modern Homo sapiens lived a generalized subsistence strategy based on hunting and gathering coastal resources like shellfish, fish, and sea lions, and terrestrial resources such as rodents, bovids, and antelope. These behaviors are recorded at archaeological sites known as Howiesons Poort/Still Bay. The theory suggests some people left South Africa and followed the eastern coast up to the Arabian peninsula and then traveled along the coasts of India and Indochina, arriving in Australia by 40,000–50,000 years ago. The notion that humans might have used coastal areas as pathways of migration was first developed by American geographer Carl Sauer in the 1960s. Coastal movement is part of other migration theories including the original out of Africa theory and the Pacific coastal migration corridor thought to have been used to colonize the Americas at least 15,000 years ago. Southern Dispersal Route: Evidence Archaeological and fossil evidence supporting the Southern Dispersal Route includes similarities in stone tools and symbolic behaviors at several archaeological sites throughout the world. South Africa: Howiesons Poort/Stillbay sites such as Blombos Cave,  Klasies River Caves, 130,000–70,000Tanzania: Mumba Rock Shelter (~50,000–60,000)United Arab Emirates: Jebel Faya (125,000)India: Jwalapuram (74,000) and PatneSri Lanka: Batadomba-lenaBorneo: Niah Cave (50,000–42,000)Australia: Lake Mungo and Devils Lair Chronology of the Southern Dispersal The site of Jwalapuram in India is key to dating the southern dispersal hypothesis. This site has stone tools which are similar to Middle Stone Age South African assemblages, and they occur both before and after the eruption of the Toba volcano in Sumatra, which has recently been securely dated to 74,000 years ago. The power of the massive volcanic eruption was largely considered to have created a wide swath of ecological disaster, but because of the findings at Jwalapuram, the level of devastation has recently come under debate. There were several other species of humans sharing planet earth at the same time as the migrations out of Africa: Neanderthals, Homo erectus, Denisovans, Flores, and Homo heidelbergensis). The amount of interaction Homo sapiens had with them during their sojourn out of Africa, including what role the EMH had with the other hominins disappearing from the planet, is still widely debated. Stone Tools and Symbolic Behavior Stone tool assemblages in Middle Paleolithic East Africa were primarily made using a Levallois reduction method, and include retouched forms such as projectile points. These types of tools were developed during Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 8, about 301,000-240,000 years ago. People leaving Africa took those tools with them as they spread eastward, arriving in Arabia by MIS 6–5e (190,000–130,000 years ago), India by MIS 5 (120,000–74,000), and in southeast Asia by MIS 4 (74,000 years ago). Conservative dates in southeast Asia include those at Niah Cave in Borneo at 46,000 and in Australia by 50,000–60,000. The earliest evidence for symbolic behavior on our planet is in South Africa, in the form of the use of red ochre as paint, carved and etched bone and ochre nodules, and beads made from deliberately perforated sea shells. Similar symbolic behaviors have been found at the sites which make up the southern diaspora: red ochre use and ritual burials at Jwalapuram, ostrich shell beads in southern Asia, and widespread perforated shells and shell beads, hematite with ground facets, and ostrich shell beads. There is also evidence for the long distance movement of ochres—ochre was so important a resource it was sought and curated—as well as engraved figurative and non-figurative art, and composite and complex tools such as stone axes with narrow waists and ground edges, and adzes made of marine shell. The Process of Evolution and Skeletal Diversity So, in summary, there is growing evidence that people began to leave Africa beginning at least as early as the Middle Pleistocene (130,000), during a period when the climate was warming. In evolution, the region with the most diverse gene pool for a given organism is recognized as a marker of its point of origin. An observed pattern of decreasing genetic variability and skeletal form for humans has been mapped with distance from sub-Saharan Africa. At the moment, the pattern of ancient skeletal evidence and modern human genetics scattered throughout the world best matches a multiple-event diversity. It seems that the first time we left Africa was from South Africa at least 50,000–130,000 then along and through the Arabian peninsula; and then there was a second outflow from East Africa through the Levant at 50,000 and then into northern Eurasia. If the Southern Dispersal Hypothesis continues to stand up in the face of more data, the dates are likely to deepen: there is evidence for early modern humans in southern China by 120,000–80,000 bp. Out of Africa TheorySouthern Dispersal RouteMultiregional Theory Sources Armitage, Simon J., et al. The Southern Route out of Africa: Evidence for an Early Expansion of Modern Humans into Arabia. Science 331.6016 (2011): 453–56. Print.Boivin, Nicole, et al. Human Dispersal across Diverse Environments of Asia During the Upper Pleistocene. Quaternary International 300 (2013): 32–47. Print.Erlandson, Jon M., and Todd J. Braje. Coasting out of Africa: The Potential of Mangrove Forests and Marine Habitats to Facilitate Human Coastal Expansion Via the Southern Dispersal Route. Quaternary International 382 (2015): 31–41. Print.Ghirotto, Silvia, Luca Penso-Dolfin, and Guido Barbujani. Genomic Evidence for an African Expansion of Anatomically Modern Humans by a Southern Route. Human Biology 83.4 (2011): 477–89. Print.Groucutt, Huw S., et al. Stone Tool Assemblages and Models for the Dispersal of Homo Sapiens out of Africa. Quaternary International 382 (2015): 8–30. Print.Liu, Wu, et al. The Earliest Unequivocally Modern Humans in Southern China. Nature 526 (2015): 696. Print.Reyes-Centeno, Hugo, et al. Genomic and Cranial Phenotype Data Support Multiple Modern Human Dispersals from Africa and a Southern Route into Asia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 111.20 (2014): 7248–53. Print.Reyes-Centeno, Hugo, et al. Testing Modern Human out-of-Africa Dispersal Models Using Dental Nonmetric Data. Current Anthropology 58.S17 (2017): S406–S17. Print.

The Challenges Between Homosexuality And Feminism

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Efficiency and Safety of Vaccination-Free-Samples for Students

Question: Discuss about the Efficiency and safety of vaccination in the pediatric population. Answer: Introduction: There are various different reasons behind the onset of medical adversities; however, the communicable diseases pose the most threatening of the medical adversities that pose the biggest and most critical to overcome challenge. There is a vast variety of different communicable diseases, and most of them contribute to the increasing mortality rates and co-morbidity in different age groups, although it has to be mentioned that the most of the detrimental impact of the communicable diseases is imparted on the health and wellbeing of the children. The annual rates of the pediatric mortality rate due to different communicable diseases are extremely high in this particular sector, and that is the reason the vaccination activity is the most emphasized for the pediatric populations (Al-Salem et al. 2012). The vaccines can be defined as one of the greatest achievements of the medical science and health care in general that has effectively revolutionized the heath care delivery when it comes to the communicable disease outbreaks. Now it has to be mentioned that the roles that vaccination has played is great; when considering the communicable outbreaks that have been endemic and epidemic scale in the absence of any sound intervention strategy like smallpox, polio, measles, rubella, and many more; and almost all of the mentioned communicable diseases outbreaks have the highest risk of targeting the pediatric populations. Hence, in order to implement a preventative strategy that can effectively decrease the alarmingly increasing mortality rates in the pediatric and neonatal population the vaccination procedure has a global emphasis on the pediatric population, and the strategy has been effective as well (Baggs et al. 2011). Although it has to be understood in this context that the vaccinat ion procedures have a lot of risks associated as well and if a strong safety and efficiency protocol in place, there can be many severe consequences that can potentially threaten the health and wellbeing of the children receiving the vaccination. This assignment will attempt to explore the need for safety and efficacy in vaccination and the procedures in place in the pediatric population emphasizing on the Saudi Arabian demographic context. Need For Safety and Efficiency: According to the Black et al. (2010), the vaccination procedure is designed and implemented in the hopes of providing mostly the children population, with a few adult vaccination exceptions, in order to provide acquired immunity against a few selective communicable infections. There are different types of vaccines that provide differential immunity and the type and dosage of the vaccination depends on the need of the recipient as per the age group that the individual must have. However, regardless of the type of vaccination pr the dosage of the vaccination that is being administered, the procedure must follow a meticulous and detailed safety protocol for the vaccines to be effective and avoid any chances of contamination and infection (Buttery et al. 2011). It has to be mentioned in this context that the safety procedures that are implemented for the vaccination procedures are multi- dimensional, and the safety and efficiency checking procedures are carried out in both the manufacturing- licensing phase and while in the health care facility as well. There are different authorative bodies that direct control and monitor the safety and efficacy of the different vaccines and dosage specifications and the centre for disease control and prevention or the CDC can be considered the most effective one. It has to be mentioned that the safety and efficacy of the vaccines are a serious concern in the public health scenario as there are many adverse effects that are associated will ill- controlled vaccination procedure implemented to the children. One prime example of the adverse effect of overwhelming impact of too many vaccines with too much dosage has a possible impact on development of autism and similar developmental disorders in the pediatric population. Hence, the efficiency and the relevance of the vaccines are meticulously checked and evaluated before it is even released in the market by the authorative bodies. However only checking the efficiency is nowhere near enough as the most of the threat to the children when it comes to faulty vaccination procedure is the safety protocol implemented in the vaccine administration procedure in the health care facility (Gee et al. 2011). According of a recent statistics the phenomenon of safe immunization process can be considered still a massive concern for the developing countries. There are major concerns that the emerging nations are facing when it comes to safe and effective immunization procedure, they are, right vaccine composition, handling, scheduling and administering the vaccines or injections, and the surveillance and evaluation of the vaccines being administered to the pediatric patients. Along with that, it has to be mentioned in this context that the safe waste disposal during the vaccine administration procedure, according to a recent statistics there are closely 1 billion injections administered annually on the patients for the immunization procedure. And along with that the unsafe injection administration is a regular event that occurs routinely in the developing nations and leads to many health adversities for the patient population. Hence, it can be mentioned here that the developing countries, ho wever very little are attempting the need for safe and effective monitoring on the vaccine administration procedure (Glanz et al. 2011). Safety practices in vaccine administration in Saudi Arabia: The country under emphasis in the vaccine administration safety review assignment is Saudi Arabia, and it has to be mentioned in this context that the nation has successfully achieve tremendous accomplishments in the sector for basic immunization coverage. In addition, the country has been able to successfully achieve the same by the means of a series of structured vaccination programs carried out in a well controlled a connected network of primary health care centres (Lee et al. 2011). However, there has been a brewing consensus regarding the safety of the programs both in design and implementation procedure mostly due to the lack of effective surveillance framework or program in the remote areas. In a pilot study, the incidence of adverse effects after immunization has been studies after the different vaccination programs that have been carried out on children aged 6 and lower. And hence it has to be mentioned in this context that in case of the DTP vaccination, which is the most c ommon and most abundantly administered vaccine in the pediatric populations can be the fact that the rate for adverse effects after immunization or AEFI are alarmingly high in the remote and rural areas. The incidence rate of the AEFI depended heavily upon the age of the child, vaccine preparation, clinical setting involved and the dosage schedule of the vaccination involved (Memish et al. 2013). It has to be mentioned in this context that the increase in the rte of adverse events after immunization is intricately linked with the different factors and the most of the adverse events occurred in the children during the first twenty four to forty eight hours of the vaccine administration. Despite the regular vaccination safety administration procedures the statistics of adverse events associated with the different kinds of adverse events associated with the vaccination process in Saudi Arabia is more than 90%. Elaborating more, close to more than 80% of the adverse events were discovered to be local reactions after the vaccine administration and along with that systemic reactions were reported soon after in the recipients in the 79% of the recipients. Fever has been discovered as the most crucial adverse event associated with the faulty and unsafe vaccination procedure closely followed by systemic reactions like vomiting, hypotonicity and irritation. Along with that, few of the studies focusing on the vaccination safety scenario of Saudi Arabia has also revealed the prevalence of behavioral reactions after the vaccination and the percentage of these long term reactions are almost more than 40%. There it can be concluded based on the statistical data represented above that the safety situation of vaccination procedure is in dire need of reform and the condition is worsening in case of the remote and rural areas (Al-Qatari 2010). Challenges and recommendations: In order to address the alarming condition of the vaccination safety and efficacy monitoring and implementation in the Saudi Arabia, it is crucial to discover all the different challenges associated with this situation. Now elaborating on the challenges it is also extremely important to explore and evaluate all the contributing factors associated with this situation so that a interventional strategy can be designed that can address all the challenges and successfully overcome the said challenges. First and foremost, it has to be mentioned that the most of the incidence rate in the pediatric population of AEFI has been reported in the remote areas where the health care delivery is limited and there is a significant lack of any surveillance and monitoring body overlooking the safety protocol compliance in the above mentioned demographic. it has to be mentioned in this context that the compliance rate to the vaccination safety procedures in place for Saudi Arabia primary health care fac ilities in the urban areas are much higher than what is observed in the rural or remote areas (Al-Qatari 2010). Hence, two of the most important contributing factors behind the present alarming condition are the lack of compliance rate and any surveillance or monitoring body in the remote areas overlooking the lack of compliance and care quality. Another very important factor that has been discovered in this context is the lack of knowledge and training in the existing staff in the remote areas in regards to the new and effective vaccination safety or safe vaccine administration activities that is being utilized globally. According to the Rehmani and Memon (2010), the most of training procedure and professional development programs are held in the urbanized clinical settings and hence the already understaffed facilities in the remote areas do not get the opportunity to adapt to the innovative safety techniques and protocols and hence the rate of ADFI keeps escalating. Lastly, the la ck of effective government initiative cannot be ignored in this discussion as well. It has to be mentioned that the lack of infrastructure in the rural areas are another grave contributing factor behind the escalating issue. A few recommendations that the Saudi Arabian health care authorities can atke into consideration in order to improve the present situation are: First and foremost, there is need for a strong and strict surveillance framework that will overlook the safety handling and administration procedure of the vaccines, and along with that, care needs to be taken to ensure that the remote areas are being regularly monitored as well for compliance to the protocols in place (Tse et al. 2012). Secondly, the lack of skills and training in the existing nursing staff also needs to be taken into consideration along with the low staffing situation in the primary health care facilities in the rural areas when compared to the urbanized regions (Weber et al. 2013). Training and professional development program involving the global authorities, executed in all the remote areas will eventually help the health care staff acquire better competence in handling and administering vaccines safely and effectively (Yih et al. 2011). Lastly, there is need for effective and collective efforts being invested from both the national government and the global health acre improvement authorities so that staffing and infrastructure of these regions can be improved and the children are no longer in risk for vaccine safety related health adversity (Yousif et al. 2013). Conclusion: On a concluding note, it has to be mentioned that there are various concerns and issues with the safety and efficiency maintenance of the vaccinations that are being implemented in the pediatric population. In addition, the most of the adverse situation is in case of the developing nations. This assignment effectively discussed the challenges and issues prevalent in this are taking the assistance of the Saudi Arabian context, although the scenario is very similar in all pf the developing nations. Hence, there is need for a more effective and innovative surveillance and monitoring coupled with adequate staffing and training, which can attempt to address the concerns that are prevalent in this issue as discussed. And with co-operative and collaborative efforts invested from all kinds of national and global authorities, these challenges can be hoped to be overcome. References: Al-Qatari, G., 2010. Vaccination Practice in Saudi Arabia: Is It Safe?. Al-Salem, A.H., Kothari, M.R., AlHani, H.M., Oquaish, M.M., Khogeer, S.S. and Desouky, M.S., 2012. Safety of intradermal Bacillus Calmette-Guerin vaccine for neonates in Eastern Saudi Arabia.Saudi medical journal,33(2), pp.172-176. Baggs, J., Gee, J., Lewis, E., Fowler, G., Benson, P., Lieu, T., Naleway, A., Klein, N.P., Baxter, R., Belongia, E. and Glanz, J., 2011. The Vaccine Safety Datalink: a model for monitoring immunization safety.Pediatrics,127(Supplement 1), pp.S45-S53. Black, S., Eskola, J., Siegrist, C.A., Halsey, N., MacDonald, N., Law, B., Miller, E., Andrews, N., Stowe, J., Salmon, D. and Vannice, K., 2010. Importance of background rates of disease in assessment of vaccine safety during mass immunisation with pandemic H1N1 influenza vaccines.The Lancet,374(9707), pp.2115-2122. Buttery, J.P., Danchin, M.H., Lee, K.J., Carlin, J.B., McIntyre, P.B., Elliott, E.J., Booy, R., Bines, J.E. and PAEDS/APSU Study Group, 2011. Intussusception following rotavirus vaccine administration: post-marketing surveillance in the National Immunization Program in Australia.Vaccine,29(16), pp.3061-3066. Gee, J., Naleway, A., Shui, I., Baggs, J., Yin, R., Li, R., Kulldorff, M., Lewis, E., Fireman, B., Daley, M.F. and Klein, N.P., 2011. Monitoring the safety of quadrivalent human papillomavirus vaccine: findings from the Vaccine Safety Datalink.Vaccine,29(46), pp.8279-8284. Glanz, J.M., Newcomer, S.R., Hambidge, S.J., Daley, M.F., Narwaney, K.J., Xu, S., Lee, G.M., Baggs, J., Klein, N.P., Nordin, J.D. and Naleway, A.L., 2011. Safety of trivalent inactivated influenza vaccine in children aged 24 to 59 months in the vaccine safety datalink.Archives of pediatrics adolescent medicine,165(8), pp.749-755. Lee, G.M., Greene, S.K., Weintraub, E.S., Baggs, J., Kulldorff, M., Fireman, B.H., Baxter, R., Jacobsen, S.J., Irving, S., Daley, M.F. and Yin, R., 2011. H1N1 and seasonal influenza vaccine safety in the vaccine safety datalink project.American journal of preventive medicine,41(2), pp.121-128. Memish, Z., Al Hakeem, R., Al Neel, O., Danis, K., Jasir, A. and Eibach, D., 2013. Laboratory-confirmed invasive meningococcal disease: effect of the Hajj vaccination policy, Saudi Arabia, 1995 to 2011.Euro Surveill,18(37), p.20581. Poland, G.A., 2010. The 20092010 influenza pandemic: effects on pandemic and seasonal vaccine uptake and lessons learned for seasonal vaccination campaigns.Vaccine,28, pp.D3-D13. Rehmani, R. and Memon, J.I., 2010. Knowledge, attitudes and beliefs regarding influenza vaccination among healthcare workers in a Saudi hospital.Vaccine,28(26), pp.4283-4287. Tse, A., Tseng, H.F., Greene, S.K., Vellozzi, C., Lee, G.M. and VSD Rapid Cycle Analysis Influenza Working Group, 2012. Signal identification and evaluation for risk of febrile seizures in children following trivalent inactivated influenza vaccine in the Vaccine Safety Datalink Project, 20102011.Vaccine,30(11), pp.2024-2031. Weber, J.S., Kudchadkar, R.R., Yu, B., Gallenstein, D., Horak, C.E., Inzunza, H.D., Zhao, X., Martinez, A.J., Wang, W., Gibney, G. and Kroeger, J., 2013. Safety, efficacy, and biomarkers of nivolumab with vaccine in ipilimumab-refractory or-naive melanoma.Journal of clinical oncology,31(34), pp.4311-4318. Weldeselassie, Y.G., Whitaker, H.J. and Farrington, C.P., 2011. Use of the self-controlled case-series method in vaccine safety studies: review and recommendations for best practice.Epidemiology Infection,139(12), pp.1805-1817. Yih, W.K., Kulldorff, M., Fireman, B.H., Shui, I.M., Lewis, E.M., Klein, N.P., Baggs, J., Weintraub, E.S., Belongia, E.A., Naleway, A. and Gee, J., 2011. Active surveillance for adverse events: the experience of the Vaccine Safety Datalink project.Pediatrics, pp.peds-2010. Yousif, M., Albarraq, A., Abdallah, M. and Elbur, A., 2013. Parents knowledge and attitudes on childhood immunization, Taif, Saudi Arabia.J Vaccines Vaccin,5(215), p.2.